Environmental racism statistics show unequal environmental conditions across racial and ethnic groups in the United States. In 2023, 71.7% of children ages 0–17 lived in counties where at least one current air-quality standard level was exceeded. The share was 77.2% for non-Hispanic Black children, 86.7% for non-Hispanic Asian children, and 79.9% for Hispanic children, compared with 64.2% for non-Hispanic White children. These measures describe population patterns and exposure indicators; they do not, by themselves, identify the cause of every individual health outcome.
Contents: Children and air quality · PM2.5 exposure · Contaminated lands · Lead and mercury · Childhood asthma · Household and heat burdens
Children and air quality
The EPA’s 2023 air-quality indicator measures the percentage of children living in counties where pollutant concentrations exceeded the levels of at least one current air-quality standard. It covers children ages 0–17 and reports geography at the county level, rather than measuring each child’s personal exposure.
The overall share was 71.7% in 2023. By race and ethnicity, the reported shares were:
- Non-Hispanic White children: 64.2%.
- Non-Hispanic Black children: 77.2%.
- Non-Hispanic Asian children: 86.7%.
- Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander children: 81.0%.
- Hispanic children: 79.9%.
- Children of two or more races: 74.7%.
- Native American and Alaska Native children: 51.5%.
The highest reported share in this comparison was among non-Hispanic Asian children, while the lowest was among non-Hispanic American Indian and Alaska Native children. The categories are not interchangeable, and the statistic should be read as residence in a county exceeding a standard level—not as a direct estimate of an individual child’s dose or risk. EPA, E1a, 2023
Race-specific PM2.5 exposure
Fine particulate matter, or PM2.5, is one way to quantify exposure to air pollution. A peer-reviewed analysis modeled 2014 population-weighted average PM2.5 exposure from domestic anthropogenic sources in the contiguous United States. The modeled average was 6.5 micrograms per cubic meter.
The population-group estimates were higher for several groups than for White people:
| Population group | Modeled average PM2.5 exposure, 2014 |
|---|---|
| White people | 5.9 µg/m³ |
| Hispanic people | 7.2 µg/m³ |
| Asian people | 7.7 µg/m³ |
| Black people | 7.9 µg/m³ |
| People of color | 7.4 µg/m³ |
| Contiguous U.S. population | 6.5 µg/m³ |
The study reported a modeled disparity of 14% for people of color, equivalent to 0.90 micrograms per cubic meter above the population average. The modeled disparity was 21% for Black people, equivalent to 1.36 micrograms per cubic meter above the population average; 18% for Asian people, equivalent to 1.20 micrograms per cubic meter; and 11% for Hispanic people, equivalent to 0.72 micrograms per cubic meter. These are modeled 2014 averages from domestic anthropogenic sources, not current monitoring readings for every community. PM2.5 polluters disproportionately and systemically affect people of color in the United States
Children near selected contaminated lands
An EPA comparison of selected contaminated lands examined the racial distribution of children living near those sites against the racial distribution of children in the general U.S. population. The comparison uses 2023 data and selected lands; it should not be generalized to every contaminated location in the country.
White children represented 58.4% of all U.S. children and 48.67% of children living near selected contaminated lands. Black children represented 13.6% of all children and 14.07% near the selected lands. Asian children represented 5.1% of all children and 6.62% near the selected lands. American Indian and Alaska Native children represented 1.0% in both groups.
Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander children represented 0.02% of all U.S. children and 0.51% of children near selected contaminated lands. Hispanic children represented 26.1% of all U.S. children and 34.9% near selected contaminated lands.
The comparison also reported distributions among children below poverty. White children were 43.5% of all U.S. children below poverty and 35.8% of children below poverty living near selected contaminated lands. Black children were 24.6% and 24.8%, respectively. Hispanic children were 36.9% and 44.2%, respectively. Non-Hispanic children of any race were 63.1% of all children below poverty and 55.8% of those living near selected contaminated lands. Because these categories describe distributions, they should not be interpreted as exposure concentrations or as a causal estimate. EPA, E11, 2023
Lead and mercury exposure
Blood measurements provide another way to examine environmental health disparities. For 2015–2020, the median blood-lead concentration among U.S. children ages 1–5 across all races and ethnicities was 0.6 micrograms per deciliter. The median was also 0.6 among non-Hispanic White children and 0.8 among non-Hispanic Black children. Among Mexican-American children, the median was 0.7 micrograms per deciliter.
The 95th-percentile results show a different part of the distribution. Across all races and ethnicities, the 95th-percentile blood-lead concentration was 2.4 micrograms per deciliter. It was 2.5 among non-Hispanic White children, 2.8 among non-Hispanic Black children, and 1.8 among Mexican-American children. These figures cover children ages 1–5 across all incomes; the 95th percentile is not the average and does not describe every child. EPA, B2 and EPA, B2a
For women ages 16–49, the median blood-mercury concentration during 2015–2018 was 0.6 micrograms per liter across all races and ethnicities. The reported median was 0.6 for non-Hispanic White women and Mexican-American women, 0.7 for non-Hispanic Black women, and 0.7 for Hispanic women. The EPA’s all-other-races/ethnicities category had a median of 0.9 micrograms per liter. These results are across all incomes and describe median blood concentrations for the stated period. EPA, B3a
Childhood asthma
Asthma prevalence offers a health indicator that can be considered alongside environmental exposure measures, although the figures below do not establish that a particular exposure caused a particular case. During 2021–2024, 6.49% of children ages 0–17 across all races and ethnicities were reported to still have asthma.
The reported percentages were 5.66% for non-Hispanic White children, 11.25% for non-Hispanic Black or African-American children, 3.19% for non-Hispanic Asian children, and 6.28% for Hispanic children. The percentage was 5.86% among Mexican children and 7.11% among children in the EPA’s other-race category.
Income can intersect with racial disparities. Among non-Hispanic Black or African-American children below the poverty level, 14.64% were reported to still have asthma during 2021–2024. This measure is for children ages 0–17 and is not directly comparable with a pollutant concentration or a county-level air-quality exceedance. EPA, H2, 2021–2024
Household energy and heat burdens
Environmental inequality can also appear through the cost of household energy and heat-related mortality. Using 2017 American Housing Survey data, the median energy burden was 4.2% of household income for Black households, 2.9% for non-Hispanic White households, and 3.5% for Hispanic households. The same source reported that the median energy burden for Native American households was 45% higher than for non-Hispanic White households.
Across the United States, 30.6 million households experienced a high energy burden above 6% of income in 2017. “Energy burden” is a share of household income, so these figures describe affordability pressure rather than a direct measure of pollution or temperature exposure. How High Are Household Energy Burdens?
CDC data for 2004–2018 recorded 1,349 heat-related deaths among Hispanic people, at a crude rate of 0.2 per 100,000 population. The corresponding figures were 241 deaths and a crude rate of 0.6 for non-Hispanic American Indian and Alaska Native people; 194 deaths and 0.1 for non-Hispanic Asian and Pacific Islander people; 1,965 deaths and 0.3 for non-Hispanic Black people; and 6,602 deaths and 0.2 for non-Hispanic White people.
The counts and crude rates answer different questions: counts show the recorded number of deaths in each group, while crude rates account for population size without the adjustment that would be used for an age-standardized comparison. The measurement period is 2004–2018, not a current-year estimate. CDC, Heat-Related Deaths — United States, 2004–2018